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McMillan's Writing Papers in the Biological Sciences,
4th edition, is located in the reference area of the library
(QH304.M36 2006), is available to be checked out through the
online library catalog, and may be purchased at bookstores.
Another book worth consulting is the Council of Science Editors
(CSE) Scientific Style and Format manual,
7th edition, located in the reference area of the library
(T11.S386 2006).
When you use the words or original ideas of another person
in your writing they must be documented. There are several
different formats used for documentation in the biological
and environmental sciences, and you may wish to consult your
advisor to determine which is appropriate for your field.
In the sciences, sources of information (references) may be
identified in the text of the paper rather than in footnotes.
The in-text reference information you provide leads the reader
to the "Literature Cited" section at the end of
your paper, where complete information is provided. Following
are just a few examples from Writing Papers in the Biological
Sciences, using the Harvard System (Name-Year)
- consult the book for further information on research, writing,
and additional examples. See McMillan, Chapter 6, for more
examples
WORK BY ONE AUTHOR:
The most recent study...(Scipione 1995) suggests that....
The presence of hairs on a leaf can increase...(Cunningham
1966).
WHEN THE AUTHOR'S NAME IS PART OF THE SENTENCE:
In Chandler's (1993) study of....
WORK BY TWO AUTHORS:
Other researchers (Silsby and Dunkle 1981) have suggested....
WORK BY THREE OR MORE AUTHORS:
White-lined bark beetles...(Zorn and others 1992).
MULTIPLE WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR:
The circulatory system...has been described...by Wylie (1978,
1980, 1983).
MULTIPLE WORKS BY DIFFERENT AUTHORS:
Many different models have been proposed...(Watson 1977, 1979;
Kim 1988; Cox 1992).
ARTICLE OR CHAPTER IN AN EDITED VOLUME:
Cite the author of the material you are referring to, not
the editor(s) of the entire book
WORKS YOU HAVE NOT CONSULTED DIRECTLY (try
to avoid doing this!):
Arcari (1954, cited in Castrodale 1985) reported that...
Note: list both sources in the Literature Cited section
WHEN NO AUTHOR IS GIVEN:
This species has been reported...(Anonymous 1986).
UNPUBLISHED MATERIAL (including e-mail):
D. Craine (personal communication; unreferenced) has suggested....
This species has also been found...(L Urban, 2000, unpublished
data; unreferenced).
Note: Unreferenced material will not be listed in the Literature
Cited section
(also called References or References Cited)
The Literature Cited section at the end of your paper includes
all, and only, those sources cited in your paper.
Journal articles, books, documents, and unpublished works
all appear in the same list, alphabetically by author's last
name (if there is no author, the item is listed as "Anonymous").
Punctuation and abbreviations are important! For details,
please consult McMillan or CSE. Following are a few examples
(from McMillan):
JOURNAL ARTICLE BY A SINGLE AUTHOR:
Sacher DB. 1994. Budesonide for inflammatory bowel disease:
is it a magic bullet? N Engl J Med 331:873-4. |
ARTICLE OR CHAPTER IN AN EDITED
VOLUME:
Petter JJ. 1965. The lemurs of Madagascar. In: DeVore
I, editor. Primate behavior: field studies of monkeys
and apes. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. p 292-319. |
JOURNAL ARTICLE WITH TWO OR MORE AUTHORS:
Binder V, Hendriksen C, Kreiner S. 1985. Prognosis in
Crohn's disease--based on results from a regional patient
group from the county of Copenhagen. Gut 26:146-50. |
ORGANIZATION AS AUTHOR:
[ICPO] International Committee for Preservation of Odonata.
1995. Guidelines for evaluating dragonfly habitats as
conservation areas. Boston: Entomological Pub Co; 12 p. |
BOOK WITH AN EDITOR:
Danforth DN, editor. 1982. Obstetrics and gynecology.
4th ed. Philadelphia: Harper and Row. 1316 p. |
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For additional details and examples, visit
Sources, Council
of Science Editors, and the Style
Manuals section of the PC Library's Online Reference Collection.
PROFESSIONAL OR PERSONAL SITE:
- give the author(s) and
the title - the most prominent words on the page -, followed
by
- "Internet" or
"homepage on the Internet" in brackets. Next
- provide the place of publication
or origin, followed by
- the publisher
- homepages often have several
dates, as shown below: publication date (when the material
was placed on the internet), the copyright date (c), the
latest revision date, and the date the site was viewed by
the writer.
HOMEPAGE:
Worldwide Dragonfly Association [homepage on the Internet].
Hamilton (NY): International Network of Odonatological
Information (INOI); 1998, c2003 [updated 2005 Feb 2; cited
2005 Apr 8]. Available from: http://powell.colgate.edu/wda/dragonfly.htm |
ARTICLE IN ELECTRONIC JOURNAL (Internet Only):
Nuorti P. Kotilainen P, Lappalainen M. Travel associated
probable case of SARS, Finland, with commentary from Health
Canada. Eurosurveillance Wkly [serial on the Internet].
2003 May [cited 2005 Apr 12]; 7 (22): [5 p}. Available
from: http://www.eurosurveillance.org/ew/030529.asp |
WEB SITE:
Information about influenza pandemics [Internet]. Atlanta
(GA): Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; [updated
2005 Mar 8; cited 2005 11 Apr]. [about 2 p.]. Available
from: http://www.cdc.gov/flu/avian/gen-info/pandemics.htm
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ARTICLE FROM ONLINE JOURNAL DATABASE:
Kingsolver JC, Srygley RB. 2000. Experimental analyses
of body size, flight and survival in pierid butterflies.
Evol. Ecol. Res. [online];2:593-612. Available from Biological
Sciences database. Accessed 2000 Oct 3. |
ELECTRONIC VERSION OF JOURNAL ARTICLE ALSO AVAILABLE
IN PRINT:
St. John RK, King A, de Jong D, Bodie-Collins
M, Squires SG, Tarn TWS. Border screening for SARS. Emerg
Infect Dis [serial on the Internet]. 2005 Jan [cited 2005
Apr 8]; 11(1): [about 10 screens]. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol11no01/04-0835.htm |
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